برای برخی از زبان آموزان، ریدینگ و تقویت مهارت های خواندن یکی از دشوارترین مراحل در یادگیری زبان انگلیسی است. وقتی به نوبت به بخش های ریدینگ آزمون تافل می رسد، این مسئله حتی چالش برانگیز تر هم می شود. برای اینکه بتوانید در بخش ریدینگ تافل عملکرد خوبی داشته باشید باید سرعت خود در درک مطلب را بالا ببرید. این امر، مستلزم درک کامل ساختارهای دستوری و گرامری پیچیده و تسلط به واژگان سطح بالای زبان انگلیسی است. علاوه بر این، شما باید در مدت زمان کوتاهی به بسیاری از سوالات پاسخ دهید. جای تعجب ندارد که بسیاری از داوطلبان آزمون تافل نگران عملکرد خود در بخش ریدینگ هستند. با این حال، باید بدانید که بخش ریدینگ تافل در واقع یکی از ساده ترین بخش های آزمون است. افزایش آگاهی در مورد انواع مختلف سوالات ریدینگ و اینکه در روز آزمون چه چیزی انتظارتان را می کشد آزمون را بسیار ساده می کند. پیش از هر چیز، باید بدانید که در تافل، 10 نوع سوال ریدینگ طراحی می شود.
در این مقاله، 10 نوع سوالی که در آزمون تافل پرسیده می شوند را بررسی خواهیم کرد. هر چه آشنایی شما با انواع سوالات بیشتر باشد؛ آمادگی بیشتری برای کسب نمره بالا در آزمون کسب خواهید کرد. در ادامه، خلاصه ای کوتاه از هر نوع سوالی که ممکن است با آن رو به رو شوید را آورده ایم.
1. Inference Question
اولین دسته سوالات تافل، سوالات استنباطی (Inference) هستند. در سوالات استنباطی، چنین سوالی از شما پرسیده می شود:
In paragraph 5, what does the author imply about?
یا
What can be inferred from paragraph 5?
همانطور که میبینید، در این سوالات پاسخ دقیقی به طور مستقیم در متن وجود ندارد. در هنگام پاسخگویی به این سوالات شما باید بر اساس اطلاعاتی که در متن یا پاراگراف مشخصی به شما ارائه شده است، نتیجه گیری کنید. شما باید مناسب ترین گزینه (نتیجه گیری) را از میان گزینه های موجود انتخاب کنید.
[5] Ir has not been common at Earth’s surface since the very beginning of the planet’s history. Because it usually exists in a metallic state, it was preferentially incorporated in Earth’s core as the planet cooled and consolidated. Ir is found in high concentrations in some meteorites, in which the solar system’s original chemical composition is preserved. Even today, microscopic meteorites continually bombard Earth, falling on both land and sea. By measuring how many of these meteorites fall to Earth over a given period of time, scientists can estimate how long it might have taken to deposit the observed amount of Ir in the boundary clay. These calculations suggest that a period of about one million years would have been required. However, other reliable evidence suggests that the deposition of the boundary clay could not have taken one million years. So the unusually high concentration of Ir seems to require a special explanation.
سوال:
Paragraph 5 implies that a special explanation of the Ir in the boundary clay is needed because
A. The Ir in microscopic meteorites reaching Earth during the Cretaceous period would have been incorporated into Earth’s core
B. The Ir in the boundary clay was deposited much more than a million years ago
C. The concentration of Ir in the boundary clay is higher than in microscopic meteorites
D. The amount of Ir in the boundary clay is too great to have come from microscopic meteorites during the time the boundary clay was deposited
پاسخ صحیح: D
2. Vocabulary Question
سوالات مربوط به واژگان در بخش ریدینگ بر روی مهارت شما در تشخیص معنای عبارات متمرکز هستند. در این سوالات، از شما خواسته می شود معادل کلمه یا عبارت مشخصی را از میان 4 گزینه داده شده در بخش سوالات، انتخاب کنید. گزینه ای که شما انتخاب میکنید باید نزدیک ترین معنا را به عبارت تعیین شده داشته باشد. برای پاسخگویی درست به این سوال، شما نباید تنها به معنای لفظی کلمات توجه کنید؛ بلکه باید معنای کلمه را در متن و جمله، درک کنید. برای فهم بهتر این مسئله، به مثال زیر توجه کنید:
The Native American Trade is the trade between Europeans, their North American descendants, and the indigenous people of North America who are now known as Native Americans in the United States, First Nations in Canada, whom were formerly known as Indians. Indian Trade is the term used to describe the people involved in the trade, which began in the 1500s, and had various products in different regions and eras. In most of Canada the term is synonymous with the fur trade such as beaver fur which, from the European point of view, was the most valuable product of the trade.
سوال:
The word "indigenous" in paragraph 1 is closest in meaning to
A. Intelligent
B. Foreign
C. Native
D. Friendly
پاسخ صحیح: C
3. Reference Question
در این شکل از سوالات بخش ریدینگ تافل، از شما خواسته میشه مرجع یک کلمه مشخص شده (بولد شده) را تعیین کنید. در واقع، شما باید مشخص کنید که این کلمه به چه چیزی اشاره می کند. اگر این کلمه یک ضمیر باشد شما باید در جستجوی کلمه ای باشید که این ضمیر، جایگزین آن شده است.
[1] Charles Darwin's Theory of Evolution is known as one of the most important and controversial scientific theories ever published. Natural selection contributes to the basis of Darwin's Theory of Evolution. One of the core tenets of Darwin's theory is that more offspring are always produced for a species than can possibly survive. Yet, no two offspring are perfectly alike. As a result, through random mutation and genetic drift, over time offspring develop new traits and characteristics. Over time beneficial traits and characteristics that promote survival will be kept in the gene pool while those that harm survival will be selected against. Therefore, this natural selection ensures that a species gradually improves itself over an extended duration of time. On the other hand, as a species continues to 'improve' itself, it branches out to create entirely new species that are no longer capable of reproducing together.
سوال:
The word 'those' in paragraph 1 refers to:
A. Gene pool
B. Survival
C. Natural selection
D. Traits characteristics
پاسخ صحیح: D
4. Purpose Question
در این نوع سوالات، شما باید علت درج اطلاعات خاصی توسط نویسنده را کشف کنید. پاسخ این سوالات به طور مستقیم در متن وجود ندارد. برای حل و پاسخگویی به این نوع سوالات، شما باید نکته اصلی پاراگراف و چگونگی ارتباط میان اطلاعات ارجاع شده با نکته اصلی پاراگراف را درک کنید. به نمونه زیر دقت کنید:
Why does the author mention XXX in paragraph 2?
در ادامه، یک نمونه سوال و پاسخ نیز برای شما آورده ایم:
[4] Darwin's theory is that 'selective breeding' occurs in nature as 'natural selection' is the engine behind evolution. Thus, the theory provides an excellent basis for understanding how organisms change over time. Nevertheless, it is just a theory and elusively difficult to prove. One of the major holes in Darwin's theory revolves around “irreducibly complex systems.” An irreducibly complex system is known as a system where many different parts must all operate together. As a result, in the absence of one, the system as a whole collapses. Consequently, as modern technology improves, science can identify these “irreducibly complex systems” even at microscopic levels. These complex systems, if so inter-reliant, would be resistant to Darwin's supposition of how evolution occurs. As Darwin himself admitted, “To suppose that the eye with all its inimitable contrivances for adjusting the focus for different distances, for admitting different amounts of light, and for the correction of spherical and chromatic aberration, could have been formed by natural selection, seems, I free confess, absurd in the highest degree.
سوال:
In paragraph 4, what was the author's purpose of including a quote that the belief that the complexity of the human eye could have been formed by natural selection seems highly unlikely?
A. To provide evidence that irreducibly complex systems exist
B. The proof that the natural selection contradicts the basis of Darwin
C. The support that the natural selection contributes to the basis of Darwin
D. The support the claim that natural selection is just a theory and difficult to prove
پاسخ صحیح: D
5. Detail (Factual Information) Question
در سوالات جزئی، درباره اطلاعاتی جزئی و دقیقی که در متن ذکر شده اند، مورد پرسش قرار می گیرید. به طور معمول، در این سوالات، از کلمات پرسشی مانند "چه کسی"، "چه"، "چه زمانی"، "کجا" و "چرا" استفاده می شود. پاسخ سوال به طور مستقیم در متن ذکر شده است. به مثال زیر دقت کنید:
[3] The first eye fossils date back to 540 million years ago. Prior to this time, organisms may have had use for light sensitivity, but not for fast locomotion and navigation by vision. However, it remains difficult to evaluate the rate of eye evolution because the fossil record of this period is weak. The development of the circular patch of photoreceptor cells into a fully functional vertebrate eye has been estimated on the rates of mutation, relative benefit to the organism and natural selection. Based on these estimations, it is suggested that it would take less than 364,000 years for the complete evolution of the eye.
سوال:
According to paragraph 3, how has the development of a fully functional vertebrate eye been estimated?
A. It has been estimated on mutation rates, relative advantages to the organism and natural selection.
B. It has been estimated on studies of the fossil record of this period.
C. It has been estimated on natural selection only.
D. It has been estimated based on the first eye fossils, dating back to 540 million years ago.
پاسخ صحیح: A
6. Negative Factual Information Question
این سوالات با گروه قبلی شباهت بسیاری دارند. با این حال، در این سوالات از قید منفی "NOT" یا "EXCEPT" استفاده می شود. شما باید به این کلمات دقت کنید و در هنگام تشخیص پاسخ درست، آنها را در ذهن داشته باشید. در این سوالات، ممکن است از شما پرسیده شود " کدام یک از موارد زیر در مورد فرد ایکس درست نیست؟!" با بررسی مثال زیر با این سوالات بهتر آشنا خواهید شد.
[4] Darwin's theory is that 'selective breeding' occurs in nature as 'natural selection' is the engine behind evolution. Thus, the theory provides an excellent basis for understanding how organisms change over time. Nevertheless, it is just a theory and elusively difficult to prove. One of the major holes in Darwin's theory revolves around “irreducibly complex systems.” An irreducibly complex system is known as a system where many different parts must all operate together. As a result, in the absence of one, the system as a whole collapses. Consequently, as modern technology improves, science can identify these “irreducibly complex systems” even at microscopic levels. These complex systems, if so inter-reliant, would be resistant to Darwin's supposition of how evolution occurs. As Darwin himself admitted, “To suppose that the eye with all its inimitable contrivances for adjusting the focus for different distances, for admitting different amounts of light, and for the correction of spherical and chromatic aberration, could have been formed by natural selection, seems, I free confess, absurd in the highest degree.
سوال:
All of the following are mentioned in paragraph 4 as a viewpoint to state the natural selection is difficult to prove EXCEPT
A. The belief that the complexity of the human eye could have been formed by natural selection seems highly unlikely
B. The presence of irreducibly complex system contradicts how evolution occurs
C. Modern microbiology proves that irreducibly complex systems exist
D. Selective breeding is the major hole in the theory of natural selection
پاسخ صحیح: D
7. Essential Information (Sentence Simplification) Question
در این نوع سوال، یک بخش یا جمله کامل در متن ریدینگ تافل برجسته می شود. سوال از شما درخواست می کند از میان 4 گزینه پاسخی که در اختیار دارید یکی را انتخاب کنید. گزینه انتخابی شما باید با جمله هایلایت شده در متن برابری (معنایی) داشته باشد. با وجودی که این گزینه خلاصه تر است، باید تمام اطلاعات مهم را منتقل کند. در این شکل سوالات، گزینه های نادرست گزینه هایی هستند که:
• شامل جزئیات یا مفاهیم مهم نیستند و یا آنها را کنار می گذارند
• اطلاعات را به شکل نادرست منتقل می کنند
• معنای اصلی جمله را تغییر می دهند
مثال زیر شما را در درک بهتر این سوالات یاری میکند:
[4] Dissatisfaction with conventional explanations for dinosaur extinctions led to a surprising observation that, in turn, has suggested a new hypothesis. Many plants and animals disappear abruptly from the fossil record as one moves from layers of rock documenting the end of the Cretaceous up into rocks representing the beginning of the Cenozoic (the era after the Mesozoic). Between the last layer of Cretaceous rock and the first layer of Cenozoic rock, there is often a thin layer of clay. Scientists felt that they could get an idea of how long the extinctions took by determining how long it took to deposit this one centimeter of clay and they thought they could determine the time it took to deposit the clay by determining the amount of the element iridium (Ir) it contained.
سوال:
Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in paragraph 4? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.
A. The fossil record suggests that there was an abrupt extinction of many plants and animals at the end of the Mesozoic era.
B. Few fossils of the Mesozoic era have survived in the rocks that mark the end of the Cretaceous.
C. Fossils from the Cretaceous period of the Mesozoic up to the beginning of the Cenozoic era have been removed from the layers of rock that surrounded them.
D. Plants and animals from the Mesozoic era were unable to survive in the Cenozoic era.
پاسخ صحیح: A
8. Sentence Insertion (Insert Text) Question
در سوالات درج جمله در شما خواسته می شود بهترین محل برای قرارگیری یک جمله در متن را شناسایی کنید. در این نوع سوالات، درک شما از منطق و ایده کلی موجود در متن مورد ارزیابی قرار می گیرد. علاوه بر این، توانایی شما در درک ارتباطات دستوری از یک جمله به جمله دیگر نیز آزمایش می شود. به مثالی که در ادامه آورده ایم توجه کنید:
[5] Trade was difficult for the early Europeans trading with Native Americans during the first trades.
█ [A] Economic contact between Native Americans and Europeans can be traced back to the English and French fishermen off the coast of Canada in the 1500s. They traded guns and other weapons for beaver fur. █ [B] The first explorers to trade with the Native Americans were Giovanni da Verrazano and Jacques Cartier in the 1520s and 1530s. █ [C]In Verrazano's book he notes, "If we wanted to trade with them for some of their things, they would come to the seashore on some rocks where the breakers were most violent while we remained on the little boat █ [D]and they sent us what they wanted to give on a rope, continually shouting to us not to approach the land.
سوال:
In paragraph 5 of the passage, there is a missing sentence. The paragraph shows four letters (A, B, C, and D) that indicate where the following sentence could be added.
Choose the place where the sentence fits best.
پاسخ صحیح: B
9. Complete the Summary (Prose Summary) Question
در این شکل از سوالات ریدینگ تافل، خلاصه از متن ریدینگ و 6 گزینه پاسخ به شما ارائه می شود. شما باید 3 گزینه که نشان دهنده ایده های اصلی و یا اطلاعات مهم متن هستند را با استفاده از تکنیک کشیدن و رها کردن، انتخاب کنید. برای انجام این کار شما باید آنها را از قسمت پایین نمایشگر کامپیوتر بکشید و رها کنید و در یکی از قسمت های خالی قرار دهید. توجه داشته باشید که هیچ یک از این گزینه ها حاوی کلماتی مشابه با آنچه در متن مطالعه کرده اید نیستند. گزینه های نادرست یا حاوی اطلاعات و جزئیات نادرست هستند و یا مفهوم بی اهمیتی را بیان میکنند. پاسخگویی درست به این سوال برای شما 2 امتیاز در پی خواهد داشت. در صورتی که از 3 گزینه، 2 گزینه را درست انتخاب کنید، 1 امتیاز کسب خواهید کرد. به مثال توجه کنید:
[1] Paleontologists have argued for a long time that the demise of the dinosaurs was caused by climatic alterations associated with slow changes in the positions of continents and seas resulting from plate tectonics. Off and on throughout the Cretaceous (the last period of the Mesozoic era, during which dinosaurs flourished), large shallow seas covered extensive areas of the continents. Data from diverse sources, including geochemical evidence preserved in seafloor sediments, indicate that the Late Cretaceous climate was milder than today’s. The days were not too hot, nor the nights too cold. The summers were not too warm, nor the winters too frigid. The shallow seas on the continents probably buffered the temperature of the nearby air, keeping it relatively constant.
[2] At the end of the Cretaceous, the geological record shows that these seaways retreated from the continents back into the major ocean basins. No one knows why. Over a period of about 100,000 years, while the seas pulled back, climates around the world became dramatically more extreme: warmer days, cooler nights; hotter summers, colder winters. Perhaps dinosaurs could not tolerate these extreme temperature changes and became extinct.
[3] If true, though, why did cold-blooded animals such as snakes, lizards, turtles, and crocodiles survive the freezing winters and torrid summers? These animals are at the mercy of the climate to maintain a livable body temperature. It’s hard to understand why they would not be affected, whereas dinosaurs were left too crippled to cope, especially if, as some scientists believe, dinosaurs were warm-blooded. Critics also point out that the shallow seaways had retreated from and advanced on the continents numerous times during the Mesozoic, so why did the dinosaurs survive the climatic changes associated with the earlier fluctuations but not with this one? Although initially appealing, the hypothesis of a simple climatic change related to sea levels is insufficient to explain all the data.
[4] Dissatisfaction with conventional explanations for dinosaur extinctions led to a surprising observation that, in turn, has suggested a new hypothesis. Many plants and animals disappear abruptly from the fossil record as one moves from layers of rock documenting the end of the Cretaceous up into rocks representing the beginning of the Cenozoic (the era after the Mesozoic). Between the last layer of Cretaceous rock and the first layer of Cenozoic rock, there is often a thin layer of clay. Scientists felt that they could get an idea of how long the extinctions took by determining how long it took to deposit this one centimeter of clay and they thought they could determine the time it took to deposit the clay by determining the amount of the element iridium (Ir) it contained.
[5] Ir has not been common at Earth’s surface since the very beginning of the planet’s history. Because it usually exists in a metallic state, it was preferentially incorporated in Earth’s core as the planet cooled and consolidated. Ir is found in high concentrations in some meteorites, in which the solar system’s original chemical composition is preserved. Even today, microscopic meteorites continually bombard Earth, falling on both land and sea. By measuring how many of these meteorites fall to Earth over a given period of time, scientists can estimate how long it might have taken to deposit the observed amount of Ir in the boundary clay. (A) These calculations suggest that a period of about one million years would have been required. (B) However, other reliable evidence suggests that the deposition of the boundary clay could not have taken one million years. (C) So the unusually high concentration of Ir seems to require a special explanation. (D)
[6] In view of these facts, scientists hypothesized that a single large asteroid, about 10 to 15 kilometers across, collided with Earth, and the resulting fallout created the boundary clay. Their calculations show that the impact kicked up a dust cloud that cut off sunlight for several months, inhibiting photosynthesis in plants; decreased surface temperatures on continents to below freezing; caused extreme episodes of acid rain; and significantly raised long-term global temperatures through the greenhouse effect. This disruption of food chain and climate would have eradicated the dinosaurs and other organisms in less than fifty years.
14. Directions: An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is provided below. Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer choices that express the most important ideas in the passage. Some sentences do not belong in the summary because they express ideas that are not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage. This question is worth 2 points.
Drag your answer choices to the spaces where they belong. To remove an answer choice, drag it back.
For a long time scientists have argued that the extinction of the dinosaurs was related to climate change.
A. Extreme changes in daily and seasonal climates preceded the retreat of the seas back into the major ocean basins.
B. A simple climate change does not explain some important data related to the extinction of the dinosaurs at the end of the Cretaceous.
C. The retreat of the seaways at the end of the Cretaceous has not been fully explained.
D. The abruptness of extinctions at the end of the Cretaceous and the high concentration of Ir found in clay deposited at that time have fueled the development of a new hypothesis.
E. Some scientists hypothesize that the extinction of the dinosaurs resulted from the effects of an asteroid collision with Earth.
F. Boundary clay layers like the one between the Mesozoic and Cenozoic are used by scientists to determine the rate at which an extinct species declined.
پاسخ صحیح: b,d,e
10. Complete the Table (Fill in a Table) Question
در سوالات مربوط به تکمیل جدول، 2 یا 3 دسته بندی خالی را در یک جدول مشاهده خواهید کرد. شما باید پس از مطالعه گزینه های ارائه شده، مشخص کنید که هر یک به کدام دسته بندی تعلق دارند. توجه داشته باشید که در میان گزینه ها، 2 گزینه وجود دارد که در جدول جایی ندارند. بسته به نوع سوال، 5 الی 7 گزینه صحیح وجود خواهد داشت.
ارزش این سوال 3 یا 4 امتیاز است. سوالاتی با 5 گزینه صحیح، 3 امتیاز و سوالاتی با 7 گزینه صحیح، 4 امتیاز خواهند داشت. در صورتی که 3 گزینه صحیح (از 5 گزینه) و یا 4 گزینه صحیح (از 7 گزینه) انتخاب کنید، تنها 1 امتیاز دریافت خواهید کرد. در صورت انتخاب 4 گزینه صحیح (از 5 گزینه) و یا 5 گزینه صحیح (از 7 گزینه) نیز 2 امتیاز کسب خواهید کرد. انتخاب 5 یا 6 گزینه درست نیز برای شما نمره کامل را در پی خواهد داشت.
این سوال توانایی شما در سازماندهی ایده های اصلی ریدینگ تافل و تشخیص اطلاعات مهم را ارزیابی می کند. همچنین، درک شما از روابط علت و معلولی بین پدیده ها را نیز آزمایش می کند. به مثال زیر توجه کنید:
[1] The method of Radiocarbon dating was invented in the late 1940s by Willard Libby. It is a method to determine the age of an object by using radiocarbon properties. Radiocarbon is created in the atmosphere through the interaction of nitrogen and cosmic rays. When combined with oxygen, carbon dioxide is produced. CO2 enters plants through photosynthesis; animals and humans incorporate carbon when they eat plants. After the death of a plant or animal, the rate of carbon begins to decline – this is called the radioactive decay of carbon. When analysts measure the amount of carbon in this decayed object, they can calculate when it died. The furthest date that has been reliably measured back to is around 50,000 years.
[2] Research into the proportion of carbon in the atmosphere has been going on for more than five decades. Due to the increase in the burning of fossil fuels and nuclear testing in the 20th century, there was a significant increase in the level of carbon in our atmosphere, so this adds to the complication of carbon calculation. Originally, scientists used samples of solid carbon for testing. However, they realized that converting the samples to liquid or gas offered more precise results. Accelerator mass spectrometry is the current method of analysis. All carbon atoms in the sample are counted; its results are fast and very accurate.
[3] Archaeology has been profoundly affected by progress in radiocarbon dating. Faunal analysis has also been impacted by progress in this area. Faunal analysis is the study of the remains of animals with the aim to help us understand human activities in the past.
[4] At the end of the Pleistocene Era, there were many rapid extinction of megafauna, particularly in the Americas. There is a notable report by Vartanyan et al. on the extinction of pygmy mammoths, dating them back to 3700 years before present using radiocarbon dating. Other scientists have used this method to calculate the age of the extinct species in the La Brea tar pits in California. In their faunal analysis, they employed a pre-treatment method that included the use of tar. They collected bones, divided them into small pieces and chips and crushed them. The bone fragments were treated with a variety of solvents, including benzene, to examine a species of Cuban Caribbean ground sloth and the Xenarthra armadillo. Carbon was then examined and radiocarbon dates were obtained from the organic material separated from the tar. Scientists were able to date the sloth remains to around 5400 before present. This information is important as it may show that the extinction of the sloth was caused by human arrival in Cuba.
[5] Much work is necessary to further investigate the abundant fossil materials found in Central and South American pits, including those of Talara, Peru, where there are a lot of remains of extinct megafauna and human artefacts. Ongoing studies of these sites can help to verify the theories of extinction and the impact on human behaviour.
[6] One notable achievement in radio carbon dating is Two Creeks Fossil Forest. During the 20th century, a goal of geologists was to establish the date of transition from the Pleistocene to the Holocene era. The Pleistocene epoch began 2.6 million years ago and the current, Holocene period began 11,700 years ago. In Wisconsin, USA, a fossil forest called Two Creeks was discovered. Prior to radiocarbon dating, the trees in this forest had been dated back to around 24,000 years ago, the estimated date for the end of the Pleistocene period. This estimate had been made through correlation with sequences in Scandinavia. Libby and later scientists investigated Two Creeks and used radiocarbon dating to date the trees more accurately. Samples from the fossil forest were used in tests in over 70 labs, dating the trees back to 13,730 before present. This achievement is now considered a notable result in the development of our understanding of glaciation in North America and the end of the Pleistocene epoch.
14. Complete the table by matching the phrases below
Directions: Select the appropriate phrases from the answer choices and match them to the Radiocarbon Dating and Faunal Analysis to which they relate. Some of the answer choices will NOT be used. This question is worth 4 points.
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Faunal Analysis in Cuba and California Radiocarbon dating in Two Creeks Fossil Forest
A. Tar and benzene are used in the analytical process.
B. This analytical method has determined when the Pleistocene epoch ended.
C. Initial estimates were made by comparing with similar occurrences in Scandinavia.
D. Over 70 tests were done on fossil samples.
E. Radiocarbon dating tracked the fossils to 13,370 years before present.
F. Successful radiocarbon dating of the forest samples proves the end of glaciations in North America.
پاسخ صحیح: a|b,c,e
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